This article was first published in Arabisches Pferd In The Focus.
“History is an art… and worthy of being considered a branch of wisdom”
said Ibn Khaldoun, the medieval historian and social scientist,
in his seminal work al-Muqaddama.
is believed to had been recited (most of the text is a poem rhyming in
the letter “r”) before Sultan Salahuddin al-Ayyubi known in Western
literature as Saladin. The illustration shows a black horse (most
probably a Barb or Barb-bred) and the text explaines the anatomy of
the horse and the ailments which afflict each organ.
Islamic manuscripts are the collective memory of the Islamic world and the intellectual production of the various civilisations which emerged in this region. They act as gates into the history of the relationship between Horse and Man in the pre-Industrial era. For that reason, pursuing knowledge in this field is essential to horse breeders and horse lovers worldwide.
The word manuscript (abbreviated MS or MSS) is derived from Latin meaning written
‘scriptus’, and by hand ‘manu’. In Arabic this word is translated into ‘makhtut’, which
means written by hand. Before the introduction of printing technology to Egypt in the
18th century, all sorts of documents as well as copies of the original works were handwritten.
The process of producing a single work, such as a book, was complicated and costly.
The manuscripts were produced either in the form of scrolls or codices, the latter similar to the shape of a book. The materials used were parchments, papyrus (which was used following the Islamic conquest of Egypt in 646 A.D.), vellum and palm leaf. The Islamic world followed China in the use of paper and gradually this material replaced the parchments. Textual documentation and scribes did exist
in pre-Islamic era. However, the production of scrolls and codices did not take place until the 7th century A.D. The first Arabic manuscript, which is the Quran, was produced during the reign of the third caliph Uthman Ibn Affan (644-55 A.D). Printing took over quite quickly in the industry of book production and the manual production of texts could not survive beyond the early decades of the 18th century. However, manual production of texts is still practiced in the city of Tonk, Rajistan in India, where copies of the Quran are handwritten, decorated with coloured designs, in gold and silver.
The Arabic manuscript falls under the umbrella of Islamic manuscripts. The latter written in Arabic, Urdu, Ottoman Turkish, Persian, Amazigh, Tatar, to mention a few of the languages which are all written in the Arabic script. However only manuscripts written in the Arabic language are classified as Arabic manuscripts regardless of the origin of the author. The manuscripts subject of discussion in this article are the Arabic manuscripts produced in the Arabic speaking countries.
ibn al-Ahnaf showing two mounted riders. The circles drawn
around the head of each rider demonstrates the Sasanian
influence discussed in the article.
The Arabic treatises in Furusiyya (Horsemanship) and veterinary sciences date to the Abbasid period (ending 1258 A.D) and had been reproduced throughout the Ayyubid period in Egypt (1171-1260 A.D) and the Mamluk periods, both the Bahari and the Burji periods (1250-1517 A.D). Only a fraction of the treatises known to be Mamluk treatises were authored in the Mamluk period. This reproduction of treatises could be the outcome of encountering the campaigns of the Crusades (1096- 1271 A.D) and the need to lay solid foundations for a powerful standing army under the Ayyubids in 1171 A.D and onwards. The reproduction of such treatises in military art, horsemanship, use of weaponry and veterinary sciences, was indispensable for opposing the invading Crusaders and Mongols. In this context, the foreign reader ought to understand
why the call for jihad and evoking Quranic verses encouraging the jihad are found as the prelude in this genre of literature.
It has been maintained that the term Furusiyya developed into both an institution and a concept in the Abbasid period in Iraq in the second half of the 8th century. The term Furusiyya encompassed horse-riding, knowledge and use of weaponry, martial arts,
knowledge of veterinary science, falconry, hunting and Polo, in addition to the characteristics of chivalry, courage, generosity, honesty and other characteristics valued by the tribal culture of the Arabs.
One of the seminal works on Furusiyya and veterinary science is a treatise written by
Muhammad Ibn Yakoub Ibn Ghalib Ibn Ali al-Khattal, known as Ibn Akhi Hizam, who
was leader of the Khurasani legion in the Abbasid Army. Ibn Akhi Hizam and his brother
were in charge of the royal stables of the Abbasid caliph al-Muatasim (833- 842 A.D.).
Ibn Akhi Hizam wrote a treatise on Furusiyya, military arts and veterinary sciences which endured well into the Mamluk period and was recommended as the ultimate reference by contemporary authors in the same field.
Arabic treatises generally demonstrate a Byzantine and Sassanian influence in Furusiyya, which were incorporated by the Umayyad dynasty (661 – 750 A.D) and then the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258 A.D).
anatomy found in
the manuscript Kitab
al-Baytara, Library of
Istanbul University,
Istanbul, No. AY4689.
Many of the manuals on Furusiyya and veterinary science contain pictorial art. Perhaps the question that comes to one’s mind: doesn’t Islam prohibit the production of any form of art containing human or animal figures?
How had the production of these illustrated manuals become permissible? It is true
that Islam prohibited the depiction of animal and human forms but only to discourage
idolatry. With the expansion of the Islamic empire, cultures of the earlier civilisations
resurfaced and gradually pictorial art found its way into various artefacts and intellectual productions including Arabic treatises on Furusiyya and veterinary science. I could not imagine the production of these treatises without illustrations guiding the reader or expressing what words could fail to describe. There are a number of characteristics, which we will discuss regarding these illustrations.
Kitab al-Makhzun Jami al-
Funun (The Treasure Combining
all Arts). It is attributed to Ibn Akhi
Hizam and also to Al-miqdad ibn
al-Aswad, a companion of the
Prophet Muhammad. This version
of the manuscript was rewritten
circa 1470-71 A.D. Theillustration depicts a mounted
Mamluk training on the use
of a lance lit by fire at both of
its ends.
The Mamluks, the slave worriers, were of Turkic and Mongol origin particularly during the Bahari Mamluk dynasty of Egypt and Syria (1250-1382 A.D). The Burji Mamluk dynasty (1382-1517 A.D) were mainly of Circassian origin. Generally the Mamluks were tribal nomads of central Asia; some were from Transcaucasia; Georgia, Armenia, Chechnya and Cherkessia. They were either enslaved in wars or sold by their families out of need or for the hope that the fortunes of their children will change to the better since the upbringing, education and the bright career awaiting these young Mamluks echoed beyond the Islamic world. The recruitment of Mamluks had started during the Umayyad period (albeit unsystematic) and increased in the Abbasid era. The Abbasid Caliph al-Muatassim put the policy of recruiting the Turkic Mamluk worriers into effect and together with the Persian recruits they replaced the Arabs in the
army. Internal political conflicts and questions of allegiance were among the reasons
the Abbasid Caliph put this policy into effect. It is undeniable that the qualities of the
Mamluks and their excellence in horsemanship and archery were an additional factor in favouring them over Arab soldiers. Gradually the Mamluks ascended in power until they formed the Sultanate of the Mamluks in Egypt and Syria. The earlier generation of the Mamluks learned the art of Furusiyya from the Abbasids and developed it further, which explains the presence of the Abbasid influence in the treatises produced during the Mamluks period. The humans depicted in
the Arabic treatises on Furusiyya are believed to portray the features of the Turkic Mamluks. Another opinion maintains that they are portrayed to look like Mongols reflecting the great influence of the Mongols who governed Iraq and the Eastern Islamic world.
After the sacking of Baghdad in 1258 A.D by the Ilkhanate Mongols under Hulegu Khan,
the painters in Iraq fled to Cairo and Damascus, which replaced Baghdad as the centres of Arab painting. These painters maintained their painting traditions, which explains the Mongol features in the treatises. Some illustrations show human figures and animals with circles drawn around their heads. These circles are yet another manifestation of the Sassanid tradition adopted in the Arabic treatises on Furusiyya and are also present in treatises on Veterinary science.
at al-Birjas (a target made of wood) with their lances.
The horses depicted in Islamic manuscripts at large vary in terms of colour and physical characteristics, which indicates the diversity of the breeds of horses across the Islamic world. However, the following analysis shall focus on horses depicted in Arabic manuscripts only.
Were the horses depicted in the treatises strictly speaking Arabian horses? The answer is No. I previously researched the use of Arabian horses in warfare and military training. In Egypt, Sultan al-Mansour Qalawun (1284–1285 A.D.), the father of Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad (renowned for collecting precious desert-bred horses to his stables) was reported to had favoured the horses of Cyrenaica (Barqa in north-east Libya), for their affordable prices and their stamina. The horses depicted in the treatises are closer in shape to Barb (a native of North Africa) or cross Barbs.
The Barbs probably served as the basic stock for Mamluk cavalry, in addition to Turk and Turkoman blood which migrated eastwards with their masters since the 9th century A.D.
The Arab breed was also included in the stock of the Mamluks cavalry. However, it is highly unlikely that this breed formed the basic stock. In the treatise titled Kitab al-Makhzun Jami al-Funun (The Treasure Combining All Arts), one sees illustrations of horses with long arched necks and small tapered heads. Most probably as the case with the rest of the illustrations, the artist was faithful in depicting what he actually saw before his eyes. What we see here in this particular treatise is an unusual presence of Arabian horses used in military drills. In my article titled “Equine Veterinary Knowledge in the Islamic World”, I wrote about Al-Nasir Muhammad Ibn Qalawun and his habit of presenting Mamluks with Arabian horses bred at his royal stables. Therefore it is not unusual to find Arabian horses as mounts albeit uncommon and not the constituent of the basic stock.
mounted Mamluks training on
lancing, which was believed to
be a prestigious military art.
Knowledge in veterinary sciences was richly developed in the Islamic world owing to the crucial role the horse played before it was replaced by machines. Horses were the war tanks of that time.
In the Mamluk period particularly during the reign of Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad Ibn Qalawun (1293–1294 A.D., 1299–1309 A.D., and 1310 -1341 A.D.), a seminal work on veterinary science was produced. The author is Abu Bakr Ibn Badr al- Din al-Baytar al-Nasiri (al-Baytar means the veterinarian). He acquired the title al-Nasiri after the name of Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad. He was the grand master and chief veterinary surgeon of Sultan al-Nasir. His treatise addresses the maladies of the horse, the physical imperfections of the horse, the desired and undesired physical characteristics of mares and stallions, and the selection of horses for breeding, among other topics. Abu Bakr acknowledges earlier works within the field from which he copied, such as observations, practices and diagnosis. In addition, he documented his own practices and observations.
As the Furusiyya manuals demonstrate Byzantine and Sassanian influence, Abu Bakr’s treatise demonstrates Greek influence of veterinary science, which can be traced to
Corpus Hippiatricorum Graecorum written by the Greek veterinary surgeon Theomnestus in the fourth century A.D.
One might think that the Arabic manuscripts preserved in libraries across the globe reflect the profuse production of Arabic knowledge in this field. Unfortunately, the number of manuscripts lost far exceeds those who endured into the Third millennium; so is the research in this field, which remains in need for serious researchers and studies. Nevertheless, the research already produced should quench the thirst of the average reader. I hope my article was tantalising enough and accomplished the task intended, namely to awaken the inquisitive mind and motivate the reader to dig into this field of knowledge and search in the past of our beloved horse within the pages of the intellectual heritage of the Islamic world.
- This article is collected from various academic sources and is meant to give the reader a basic idea about Islamic and Arabic manuscripts in the fields of horsemanship and veterinary.
The Horse in Word and Picture 